Vaccine production involves expertise, equipment and pathogens that in some instances are highly similar to those for production of biological weapons (BW) agents. The aim of this study was to analyse issues reltaed to biological weapons and the dual-use nature of vaccine production. The Russian Federation was chosen to exemplify these issues, as the country probably has a majority of the vaccine facilities of the former USSR, along with the more sinister inheritance of the Soviet BW programme, which utilized factual or fictional vaccine facilities for production of warfare agents. Russia is a States Party of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) that prohibits these weapons. Russia is also one of the most faithful in adhering to the Convention´s agreed system for information exchange, the Confidence-Building Measures (CBM), which includes declaration of production facilities for human vaccines. A large amount of information about vaccine facilities active in Russia in the 1990s was compiled from a wide range of open sources. Attempts are made to assess annual vaccine production volumes, and the demand and availability for some common vaccines. The current situation for the vaccine industry is also described briefly. The data compiled was compare to the Russian CBM declarations of vaccine facilities showing that the latter were incorrect in many instances, probably due to lack of up-to-date information. The conversion efforts involving vaccines, either as projects aimed to produce vaccines or involving vaccine facilities previously engaged in the Soviet BW programme, were briefly reviewed. All but a few of the facilities that were engaged in the programme, including their personnel, are now involved in conversion to peaceful activities. Unfortunately, the fate of the Soviet BW programme is not entirely clear, in spite of assurances that it has been terminated, and the information on vaccines and their production is discussed in relation to so called indicators of offensive BW activities. Finally, the recommendations of this report are to to explore the potential of vaccine production for new peaceful conversion projects in Russia, and to improve the future control regime to the BTWC regarding vaccine declarations.